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AMSCO Chapter 8
Nationalism and Economic Development, 1817-1850
• James Monroe elected at president in 1816, less than 2 years after the last battle of the War of 1812
• His term began an “Era of Good Feelings”
• Era of Good Feelings
o The result of having one party, the Republicans, caused Monroe years in office to be characterized by:
? Nationalism
? Optimism
? Goodwill
o This perception was misunderstood and oversimplified
o Arguments still remained over:
? Tariffs
? The national bank
? Internal improvements
? Public land sales
o Sectionalist tensions over slavery were becoming more apparent
o The political unity was misleading, and antagonistic factions within the party would later split it in two
o The “Era of Good Feelings” may have only lasted from 1816 to the Panic of 1819
• James Monroe
o Fought in the Revolutionary War and suffered through Valley Forge
o Prominent in Virginia’s Republican party
o Served as:
? Jefferson’s minister to Great Britain
? Madison’s secretary of state
o There appeared to be a Virginia dynasty of presidents
? Out of the first 5 presidents 4 were from Virginia (John Adams was the exception, he was from Massachusetts)
o In 1816 Monroe defeated his Federalist opponent Rufus King (183 – 34)
o Four years later the Federalist party almost ceased to exist, and Monroe received every electoral vote except for 1
o President Monroe supported the growing nationalism in Americans
o His 8-year presidency is best noted for:
? The acquisition of Florida
? Missouri Compromise
? Monroe Doctrine
• Cultural Nationalism
o Votes for Monroe were cast by a younger generation of Americans whose concerns were different from the founding fathers
o The young voters were excited about the prospects of expanding westward and had little concern about European affairs now that the wars were over
o They felt their young country was entering an era of unlimited prosperity
o Patriotic themes infused every aspect of their society, from paintings to schoolbooks
o Heroes of the Revolutionary War were enshrined in paintings (Gilbert Stuart, Charles Willson Peale, John Trumball)
o Parson Mason Weems’ created a biography praising George Washington’s virtues
o Noah Webster created a schoolbook blue-backed speller which promoted patriotism before he published his famous dictionary
• Economic Nationalism
o Political movement to support the growth of the nation’s economy was supported by:
? Subsidizing internal improvements (building roads and canals)
? Protecting the US industries from European competition
• Tariff of 1816
o Before the war of 1812 Congress had levied taxes on imports as a method to raise government revenue
o After the war, in 1816, Congress raised the tariff rates on certain goods to protect US manufactures from ruin
o A number of factories had been erected during the war to supply goods that had previously been imported by Britain
o In peacetime, American manufacturers feared that British goods would be dumped on American markets and take away much of their business
o Congress created the tariff of 1816 as the first protective tariff in US history
o New England (had little manufacturing at the time) was against the tariff
o South and West (opposed tariffs in the past and in the future) supported the tariff of 1816, thinking it was necessary for national prosperity
• Henry Clay’s American System
o Proposed a complete method for advancing the nation’s economic growth
o His plan, which he called the American System had 3 parts:
? Protective tariffs (chiefly benefit the east)
• Would promote American manufacturing and raise revenue which would be used to build a national transportation system of federally constructed roads and canals
? National bank
• Keep the system running smoothly by providing a national currency
• Aid economies of all sections
? Internal improvements
• Promote growth in the West and the South
o Two parts of Clay’s system were already in place in 1816
o Congress adopted a protective tariff and also chartered the Second Bank of the United States (The charter of Hamilton’s First Bank had been allowed to expire in 1811)
o On the matter of internal improvements Madison and Monroe felt that the constitution did not provide for the spending of federal money on roads and canals
o Individual states were left to make internal improvements on their own
• The Panic of 1819
o Era of Good Feelings fractured by the first major financial panic since the Constitution had been ratified
o Largely the fault of the Second Bank of the United States
? Had tightened credit in a belated effort to control inflation
o Many state banks closed, the value of money fell, and there was a large increase of unemployment, bankruptcies, and imprisonment for debt
o Depression was most severe in the West
? Land speculation bases on postwar euphoria had placed many people in debt
? In 1819 the Bank of the US foreclosed on large amounts of western farmland
o As a result of the bank panic and depression, nationalistic beliefs were shaken
o In the West, the crisis changed many voters’ political outlook
? Began calling for land reform and expressing strong opposition to both the national bank and debtor’s prisons
• Political Changes
o Because the Federalist party failed to adapt to the changing needs of a growing nation and presided over a secessionist convention at Hartford the party was completely out of step with nationalistic temper of the times
o Federalist failed to nominate a presidential candidate for 1820
• Changes to the Republican party
o Some members of the Republican party (John Randolph) clung to the old Republican ideals of limited government and strict interpretation of the Constitution
o The majority of the Republican party adopted what had once been a Federalist program
? Authorized the maintaining of a large army and navy
? Chartered a Second Bank of the United States
? Adopted an institution originally championed by Alexander Hamilton (Federalist)
o Daniel Webster of Massachusetts strongly opposed both the tariffs of 1816 and 1824 and then supported even higher tariff rates in 1828
o John C. Calhoun of South Carolina had been an outspoken war hawk and nationalist in 1812, and then became a leading champion of states’ rights after 1828
o Monroe declined to be nominated for presidency after his 2nd term
o Four candidates were looking to be nominated
• Marshall’s Supreme Court and Central Government Powers
o John Marshall, chief justice of the Supreme Court, made decisions that consistently favored the central government and the rights of property against the advocates of states’ rights
o Even when the Republican justices formed a majority of the Court, the sided with Marshall because they were too persuaded that the US Constitution had created a Union of states, whose government had strong and flexible powers
• Fletcher vs. Peck (1810)
o Land fraud in Georgia
o Marshall said that a state could not pass legislation invalidating a contract (unconstitutional)
• Martin vs. Hunter’s Lease (1816)
o Supreme Court established the principle that it had jurisdiction over state courts in cases involving constitutional rights
• Dartmouth College vs. Woodward (1819)
o New Hampshire created a law that changed Dartmouth College from a privately chartered college into a public institution
o Marshall court struck down the state law as unconstitutional
? A contract for a private corporation cannot be altered by the state
• McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819)
o Maryland tried to collect a tax from the Second Bank of the US
o Marshall, using a loose interpretation of the Constitution, ruled that the federal government had the implied power to create the bank
o Thus the state could not tax a federal institution because “the power to tax is the power to destroy” and federal laws are supreme over state laws
• Cohens vs. Virginia (1821)
o The Cohens were convicted of selling Washington D.C. lottery tickets authorized by Congress
o The case established the principle that the Supreme Court could review a state court’s decision involving any of the powers of the federal government
• Gibbons vs. Ogden (1821)
o New York granted a monopoly to a steamboat company that conflicted with a charter authorized by Congress
o Ruled the New York monopoly was unconstitutional
o Marshall established the federal government’s broad control of interstate commerce
• Western Settlement and the Missouri Compromise
o Population doubled in the West since the war of 1812
o Much of the nationalistic and economic interest was centered on the West
• Reasons for Westward Movement
• Acquisition of Native Americans’ lands
o Large areas of land were open for settlement after the Native Americans were driven from their lands by the victories of William Henry Harrison in the Indiana Territory and Andrew Jackson in Florida and in the South
• Economic pressures
o Economic difficulties in the Northeast from the embargo and war caused people from the region to move into the West
o In the South, plantation farmers need new land to replace the exhausted soil
o Good land for cotton found in Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas
• Improved transportation
o Pioneering families could reach their destinations easier as a result of roads, canals, steamboats, and railroads
• Immigrants
o Europeans were being attracted to America by speculators offering cheap land in the Great Lakes region and the Ohio, the Cumberland, and the Mississippi River valleys
• New Questions and Issues
o States of the West had small populations
o To enhance their limited political power the bargained with politicials to obtain their objectives
o OF greatest importance to westerners were:
? “Cheap money” (easy credit) from state banks rather than from the Bank of US
? Land made available at low prices by the government
? Improved transportation
o Westerners could not agree whether to permit or exclude slavery
o Settlers in the South wanted slavery for their cotton fields, whereas settlers in the North had no use for them
• The Missouri Compromise
o Ever since Vermont entered the Union as a free state, and Kentucky entered as a slave state, Congress had attempted to preserve a sectional balance between the North and the South
o Population in the North grew more rapidly than the south so in the house they held a majority 105 to 81
o In the Senate however, the votes were divided evenly since there were 11 free states and 11 slave states
o As long as their was a balance southern senators could block legislation that threatened the interests of their section
o Missouri wanted to apply for statehood (many slaves)
? If they were to enter the Union they would throw off the balance
• Tallmadge amendment
o John Tallmadge from New York ignited the debate about the Missouri question by proposing an amendment to the bill for Missouri’s admission
o The amendment called for:
? Prohibiting the further introduction of slaves into the Missouri
? Requiring the children of Missouri slaves to be emancipated at the age of 25
o If adopted it would have led to the gradual elimination of slavery in Missouri
o Amendment was defeated in the senate and enraged southerners who saw it as the first northern step to abolish slavery in all states
• Clay’s proposals
o Clay created support for three bills, that taken together, represented a compromise
? Missouri was to be admitted as a slaveholding state
? Maine was to be admitted as a free state
? In the rest of the Louisiana Territory north of latitude 36?30’, slavery was prohibited
o Both houses passed the compromise plan and President Monroe added his signature in March 1820
• Aftermath
o Sectional feelings on the slavery issue subsided after 1820
o Preserved national balance for over 30 years and provided time for the nation to mature
o After this political crisis, Americans were torn between feelings of nationalism (loyalty to the Union) on one hand and feelings of sectionalism (loyalty to one’s own region) on the other
• Foreign Affairs
o After the War of 1812 the US adopted a more aggressive nationalistic approach with its relations to other nations
o During Madison’s presidency problems with Barbary pirates developed again and sent a fleet under Stephen Decatur was sent in 1815 to force the rulers of North Africa to allow American shipping the free use of the Mediterranean
o President Monroe and Secretary of State Quincy Adams continued to follow a nationalistic policy that actively advanced American interests while maintaining peace
• Canada
o The Treaty of Ghent of 1814 had ended the war between Britain and US, however, it left unresolved most of their diplomatic differences, including many involving Canada
• Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817)
o During Monroe’s first year as President, British and American negotiators agreed to a major disarmament pact
o The agreement limited naval armament on the Great Lakes
o Agreement was extended to place limits on border fortifications
o The border between the US and Canada was to become the longest vulnerable boundary in the world
• Treaty of 1818
o Improved relations between the US and Britain continued in a treaty that provided for:
? Shared fishing rights off the coast of Newfoundland
? Joint occupation of the Oregon Territory for ten years
? The setting of the northern limits of the Louisiana Territory at the 49th parallel (the western US – Canada boundary line)
• Florida
o During the War of 1812 US troops occupied Florida, a strip of land on the Gulf extending all the way to the Mississippi delta
o Previously, this land had been property of Spain
o After the war Spain had difficulty governing it’s peninsula because its troops had been battling in the South American colonies
o The chaotic conditions allowed groups of Seminoles, runaway slaves, and white outlaws to conduct raids into the US territory and retreat to safety across the Florida border
o These disorders gave Monroe and General Andrew Jackson an opportunity to take military action against coveted Spanish Florida
• Jackson’s military campaign (1818)
o President told Jackson to stop the raiders, and if necessary, chase them across the border
o Jackson led a force of militia into Florida, destroyed Seminole villages, hung 2 Seminole chiefs
o Captured Pensacola and drove out the Spanish governor, and even hung 2 British traders accused of aiding the Seminoles
o Congress feared that Jackson’s actions would precipitate a war with both Spain and Britain
o John Quincy Adams persuaded Monroe to support Jackson, and the British decided not intervene
• Florida Purchase Treaty (1819)
o Spain was worried that the US would seize Florida with force
o Spain was preoccupied with troubles in Latin America
o In the treaty of 1819 they both agreed that:
? Spain would turn over the rest of western Florida along with all of the east and its own claims in the Oregon Territory to the US
? The Us would assume $5 million in claims against Spain and give up an US territorial claims to the Spanish province of Texas
• The Monroe Doctrine
o Numerous monarchies were restored in European nations
o The restored monarchies (France, Austria, and Prussia) together with Russia, cooperated in suppressing liberal elements in Italy and Spain
o Nations thought about helping Spain regain its power in South America, where a number of republics had declared their independence
o Russia’s presence in Alaska pose a problem to the British and Americans
o Russian seal hunters spread southward and established a trading post at San Francisco Bay
o America and Britain decide they needed to protect North and South America from possible aggression of a European power
• British initiative
o British navy was most important in deterring the Spanish monarchy from attempting a comeback in Latin America
o The diplomacy of British Foreign Secretary George Canning, who wanted to maintain British trade with the Latin American republics was important
o Canning suggested to Richard Rush, the US minister in London, the idea of issuing a joint Anglo-American warning to the European powers not to intervene in South America
• American response
o Monroe and most of his advisors thought Canning’s idea was good
o John Quincy Adams argue against this proposal
? Thought that joint action with Britain would restrict US opportunities for further expansion in the hemisphere
o Adams reasoned as follows:
? If the US acted alone, Britain could be counted upon to stand behind the US policy
? No European power would risk going to war in South America, and if it did, the British navy would surely defeat the aggressor
o Monroe changed his mind and agreed to issue a statement to the world that did not have Britain as a coauthor
• The doctrine (1823)
o The Monroe Doctrine asserted
? As a principle in which the rights and interests of the US are involved, the American continents are free and independent by the condition that they have assumed and maintained, and are not to be considered subjects for future colonization by any European powers
o The US was opposed to attempts by a European power to interfere in the affairs of any republic in the Western Hemisphere
• Impact
o Monroe’s nationalistic words were applauded and forgotten shortly because Americans were most concerned with domestic affairs
o Canning was upset that Monroe’s doctrine applied towards Britain as well
o The European monarchs reacted angrily to the president’s message
? The recognized, however, that their purposes were thwarted not by a few high-sounding words, but by the might of the British navy
o Monroe’s doctrine had less significance at the time than in later decades
• A National Economy
o As the century progressed, the once idealized society of farmers was now transforming into an increasing percentage of Americans sweeping themselves into the Industrial Revolution
o Many political conflicts over:
? Tariffs
? Internal improvements
? The Bank of the United States
• Population growth
o Between 1800 and 1825 the US population doubled
o 1825-1850 the population doubled again
o High birthrate and the immigration of people from Europe – mostly Great Britain and Germany
o African Americans and Native American populations increased as well
o As a percent nonwhite populations percent decreased 5% within 60 years
• Transportation
• Roads
o Pennsylvania’s Lancaster Turnpike connected Philadelphia with farmlands around Landcaster
o Many short toll roads were constructed from this successful road
o States’ righters blocked the spending of fed funds on internal improvements
o The National, or Cumberland Road, was a paved highway and major route to the west extending from Maryland to Illinois (used both federal and state money, with different states receiving ownership of small sections)
• Canals
o The Erie canal in New York linked the economies of western farms and eastern cities
o Canals began to be built and ended up joining all of the major lakes and rivers east of the Mississippi
o Improved transportation meant:
? Lower food prices in the East
? More immigrants settling in the West
? Stronger economic ties between the two sections
• Steamboats
o The Clermont voyaged up the Hudson River
o Steamboat lines made round-trip shipping on nation’s rivers faster and cheaper
• Railroads
o First railroads were hampered by safety problems
o Railroads changed small western towns into booming commercial centers
• Growth of Industry
o At the beginning of the 19th century manufacturing was very minimal
o By mid-century manufacturing surpassed agriculture
o By the century’s end it was the world’s leader
• Mechanical factors
o Patents provided inventors for handsome rewards for practical tools and machines
o Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin (1793) and devised a system for making rifles out of interchangeable parts during the War of 1812
• Corporations for raising capital
o New York passed a law that made it easier for business to incorporate and raise capital *money* by selling shares of stock
o Owners of a corp risked only the amount they risked in their venture
o Changes in state corp laws helped to raise large sums of money necessary for building factories, canals, and railroads
• Factory system
o Samuel Slater came from Britain and created the first US factory to build cotton-spinning machines (1791)
o The embargo and War of 1812 along with tariffs allowed the new factories to prosper
o New England emerged as the nation’s leading manufacturing center because of its abundant amount of waterpower and good seaports for shipping
o Its decline in maritime industry made money available for manufacturing while the decline in farming provide laborers
o Other northern states with similar resources and problems (NY, JW, PA) began the same practices
o As the factory system expanded it encouraged the growth of financial businesses such as banking and insurance
• Labor
o At first finding workers was difficult because the west offered cheap land
o Textile mills in Lowell, Mass recruited young farm women and housed them in company dormitories
o Many factories used child labor (kids as young as 7)
o In the middle of the century they began employing immigrants in large #’s
• Unions
o Trade *or craft* unions were organized in major cities and increased with the increasing numbers of factories
o Many skilled workers had to work in factories because now the same products could be produced cheaply
o Long hours, low pay, and poor working conditions led to unhappiness among workers
o The early union wanted workdays to be 10 hours long however this was hard to obtain because there were many:
? Immigrant replacement workers
? State laws outlawing unions
? Frequent economic depressions with high unemployment
• Commercial Agriculture
o Mass productions of food became more popular in 1800’s
o Cash crops were brought about by a number of factors
• Cheap land and easy credit
o Western land was available at low prices and banks provided loans at low interest rates
• Markets
o Because of the advent of canals and railroads, western farmers were able to send their products to growing cities in the East
• Cotton and the South
o 19th century’s principal cash crop = cotton
o Owners of the plantations spent all of their earnings on slaves and new land in Alabama and Mississippi
o Shipped most of their cotton crops to British textile factories
• Society
o For most Americans the standard of living increased
o Adapting to an impersonal, fast-changing economy presented challengees
• Women
o Seeked employment in a city and were limited to two choices
? Domestic service
? Teaching
o Factory jobs like the Lowell Systems were not common
o Majority of women were single and if they married they left their jobs and took up duties at home
o Gaining relatively more control over their lives
o Arranged marriages and high amounts of children were decreasing
o Political restrictions remained
• Economic and Social mobility
o Gap between very wealth and very poor increased
o Social mobility did occur from one generation to the next
o There were many economic opportunities in the US
• Slavery
o At the outset of the 19th century people thought slavery would disappear
o Hopes for a quiet end to slavery were ended by the growth of the cotton industry
AMSCO Chapter 9
Sectionalism, 1820-1850
• The United States was both a nation with a central government and a collection of semiautonomous, self-governing states
• The states had resisted giving up any of their powers to a national government
• Two political parties, Federalists (New England) and Jeffersonian Republics (South) had expressed sectional differences
• Daniel Webster refers to the sections as directions (North, South, East, West)
• The North
o Contained two parts
? The Northeast (New England and the Middle Atlantic states)
? The Old Northwest (Ohio to Minnesota)
o Northern states bound together by improved transportation and a high rate of economic growth based on both commercial farming and industrial innovation
o Most populous of the sections as a result of:
? High birth rate
? Increased immigragation
• The Industrial Northeast
o Originally the Industrial Revolution centered in the textile industry
o By the 1830’s northern factories produced everything from farm implements to clocks and shoes
• Labor
o Previous independent farmers and artisans became dependent on wages paid by factory owners
? Low pay
? Long hours
? Unsafe working conditions
o Organized unions and local political parties to protect their interests
o The first U.S. labor party that was founded in Philadelphia (1828) was able to elect a few members of the city council
o For a brief period in the 1830’s an increasing number of urban workers joined unions and participated in strikes
o Commonwealth vs. Hunt (1842)
? Supreme Court ruled that “peaceful unions” had the right to negotiate labor contracts with employers
o In the North (1850’s) most state legislatures made laws limiting the day to10 hours
o Working improvements were hindered by:
? Periodic depressions
? Employers and courts that were hostile to unions
? Abundant supply of cheap immigrant labor
• Urban life
o North’s urban pop. Grew from 5% of total population to 15% by 1850
o Because of the rapid population slums expanded so that crowded housing, poor sanitation, infectious diseases, and high rates of crime became characteristics of large working-class neighborhoods
• African Americans
o 250,000 African Americans lived in the North in 1860
o only accounted for 1% of northerners, but accounted for 50% of all free African Americans
o Could not vote, own land, or hold jobs in most skilled professions
o Immigrants displaced them from occupations they once held
o African Americans were denied membership in unions and often were hired as strikebreakers and were dismissed after it ended
• The Agricultural Northwest
o Consisted of: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota
o The procedure for turning territories into states was set forth in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787
o Depended on the Mississippi River to carry grain down to southern markets via New Orleans
o Became tied to other northern states because:
? Military campaigns by federal troops that drove Native Americans from the land
? Building of canals and railroads that established common markets between the Great Lakes and the East Coast
• Agriculture
o Grain crops of corn and wheat were profitable
o Newly invented steel plows and mechanical reapers made farming more efficient
o Only needed a few hired workers at harvesttime
o Grain had to be immediately shipped to urban centers for sale
o Used to feed cattle and hogs and to supply distillers and brewers with grain for whiskey and beer
• New cities
o At key transportation points towns grew into thriving cities
• Immigration
o In 1820 immigration = 8,000
o After 1832 there was never less than 50,000 immigrants coming in a year
o Arrived by ship
? Many remained where they landed
? Some traveled to farms and cities in the Old Northwest
? Few journeyed to the South *plantation economy and slavery limited opportunities for free labor*
o The surge in immigration was chiefly the result of:
? Development of inexpensive and relatively rapid ocean transportation
? Famines and revolutions in Europe that drove people from their homeland
? Growing reputation of the US as a country offering economic opportunities and political freedom
o Immigrants helped to provide a steady flow of cheap labor and constant demand for mass-produced consumer goods
• Irish
o Half of the immigrants during the time period were Irish
o Mostly tenant farmers driven from their homeland by potato crop failures and famine
o Faced strong discrimination because of their Roman Catholic religion
o Worked hard and competed with African Americans for domestic work and unskilled laborer jobs
o Congregated for mutual support in the northern cities where they had first landed
o Many Irish entered local politics
? Organized and joined the Democratic party (long traditions of anti-British feelings and support for the common people and workers)
• Germans
o Economic hardships and the failure of political revolutions led 1 million Germans to seek refuge in the US
o Most Germans were skilled as farmers and artisans and had at least moderate earnings
o Moved westward in search of farmland and established homelands in the Old Northwest where they generally prospered
o Became more involved in politics and were both strong supporters of public education and staunch opponents of slavery
• Nativists
o Feared the newcomers would take their jobs and weaken the culture of the Anglo majority
o The nativists were Protestants that distrusted the Roman Catholicism practiced by the Irish and many of the Germans
o Rioting occurred and a secret antiforeign society, the Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner, was formed
o Nominated candidates for office as the American party, or Know-Nothing party
o The antiforeign movement faded as slavery became more of an issue...it would reappear though
• The South
o Included the states that permitted slavery including certain border states (Delaware, Maryland, and Kentucky) that did not join the Confederacy
• Agriculture and King Cotton
o Small factories produced 15% of nation’s manufactured goods
o Cotton was the South’s chief economic activity
o Before 1860 the world depended on Britain for supply of its cloth, and Britain depended chiefly on the South for its supply of cotton fiber
o Cotton originally grown in South Carolina and Georgia…but as demand and profits increased planters moved into Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas
o New land was constantly needed because the soil became depleted
o Provided 2/3 of all US exports and tied the South’s economy to its best customer, Britain
• Slavery, the “Peculiar Institution”
o Wealth in the South was measured by land and slaves
o Southern whites were sensitive to the fact that slaves were human beings
o They felt uneasy because they had to claim slavery was a good thing and thus it became known as a “peculiar institution”
o Apologists for slavery used historical and religious arguments to support their claim that it was good for both slave and master
• Population
o Number of slaves increased from 1 million to 4 million
o Increase was largely due to natural reproduction although thousands of slaves were smuggled in despite the prohibition in 1808
o In the Deep South, slaves made up as much as 75% of the population
o Legislatures feared revolts and thus increased restrictions on movement and education of slaves
• Economics
o Majority of slaves worked in the fields, but many also became experts in a variety of skilled crafts
o Some worked as house servants, in factories, and on construction gangs
o Many slaves were sold from the upper south to the deep south
o The value of a field slave rose to almost $2,000
o South had much less capital to undertake industrialization than the North
• Slave life
o Some slaves were kept humanely, some not
o Families could be separated at any time
o Women were vulnerable to sexual exploitation
o African Americans manage to maintain a strong sense of family and of religious faith
• Resistance
o Slaves contested their status through work slowdowns, sabotage, escape, + revolt
o There were a few major slave uprisings
? One was led by Denmark Vesey (1822)
? Another led by Nat Turner (1831)
o Revolts were easily suppressed but had a lasting impact
? Gave hope to enslaved African Americans
? Drove southern states to enact strict slave codes
? Demonstrated to many, mainly the North, the evils of slavery
• Free African Americans
o By 1860, as many as 250,000 African Americans in the South weren’t slaves
o A number of slaves had been emancipated during the American Revolution
o Others were mulatto children whose white fathers had decided to liberate them
o Some achieved freedom on their own through self-purchase (craftspeople)
• White Society
• Aristocracy
o To be an elite wealthy planter in the South a person had to own at least 100 slaves and farm at least 1,000 acres
o The planter aristocracy maintained its power politically by dominating the state legislatures of the South and enacting laws that favored the large landholders’ economic interests
• Farmers
o Majority of slaveholders had fewer than 20 slaves and a few hundred acres of land
o Southern white farmers produced the bulk of cotton crop, and farmed in the fields with their slaves (lived modestly like farmers from the North)
• Poor Whites
o ¾ of the South’s population owned no slaves
o many lived in the hills as sustenance farmers
o Defended the slave system, thinking one day they could own slaves and that they were superior on the social scale to the slaves
• Mountain people
o A number of small farmers lived on the frontier in the south
o Mountain people disliked the planters and their slaves
o During the Civil War many would remain loyal to the Union
• Cities
o Limited number of large cities
o New Orleans was the largest city
• Southern Thought
• Code of chivalry
o Agricultural South was largely a feudal system
o Southern gentlemen followed a code of chivalrous conduct which included:
? Strong sense of personal honor
? Defense of womanhood
? Paternalistic treatment of all who were deemed inferior, especially slaves
• Education
o Upper class valued college for their children more than the North
o Farming, law, ministry, and military were acceptable profession
o Lower classes usually were not provided with education after early elementary
o Slaves were prohibited by law from receiving instruction on how to read and write
• Religion
o Methodists and Baptist churches arose quickly (supported slavery)
o Unitarians faced declining membership and hostility (against slavery)
o Catholics and Episcopalians took a neutral stand on slaver (numbers declined)
• The West
o The West refers to all the lands on the other side of the Mississippi River
• Native Americans
• Exodus
o By 1850 the majority of Native Americans lived west of the Mississippi
o The Great Plains provided a temporary breathing space from conflict with whites
• Life on the plains
o Horses (brought to American by Spain) helped the Native Americans
o Some Native Americans still lived in villages and grew crops as farmers
o Horse allowed many tribal groups to become nomadic hunters of buffalo
? Could move away from advancing settlers
• The Frontier
o West represented a possibility of a new start and new opportunities
o Beckoned as a place promising greater freedom for all ethnic groups: Native Americans, African Americans, European Americans, and eventually Asian Americans
• Mountain men
o Native-born white Americans that lived near the Rocky Mountains served as guides and pathfinders for settler crossing the mountains into California and Oregon
• White Settlers on the Western Frontier
o Worked hard from sunrise to sunset and lived in log cabins or other improvised shelters
o More of them died at early age from disease and malnutrition than from Indian raids
• Women
o Tasks included that of a doctor, teacher, seamstress, cook, and chief assistant in the fields to their husbands
o Isolation, endless work, and rigors of childbirth caused a shortened lifespan
AMSCO Chapter 10
The Age of Jackson, 1824-1840
• The Age of the Common Man or Era of the Jacksonian Democracy
o The emergence of popular politics in the 1820’s and the presidency of Andrew Jackson (1829 -1837)
• Jacksonian Democracy
• The Rise of a Democratic Society
o Visitors to the US were amazed by the informal manners and democratic attitudes of Americans
o Difficult for Europeans to distinguish between classes in the United States
o Equality was becoming the governing principle of American society
o Among the white majority there was a widespread belief in the principle of equality (equality of opportunity for white males)
? Meanwhile the oppression and discrimination of African Americans continued (contradictory to equality)
o The equality allowed a young man to become successful, even if he was from a humble background (hero was the “self-made man”
• Politics of the Common Man
o Politics moved from the upper class domination to the control of white males of lower and middle classes
o Number of votes cast for president rose from about 350,000 in 1824 to over 2.4 million in 1840
o Reasons why the numbers rose:
? New state suffrage laws allowed more citizens to vote
? Changes in political parties and campaign methods
? Improved education
? Increases in newspaper circulation
o Most important political changes and reforms during Jackson’s term include:
• Universal male suffrage
o Newly admitted Western states (IN,IL,MO) adopted state constitutions that allowed all white males to vote and hold office
o Most eastern states followed
o As a result, all white males could vote regardless of their social class or religion
o Also, political offices could be held by members of lower classes
• Party nominating conventions
o In the past candidates were nominated by either state legislatures or by the “King of the Caucus” (closed door meeting of a political party’s leaders)
o In the 1830’s caucuses were replaced with conventions that were open to all
o Anti-Masons were the 1st to hold a nominating convention
• Popular election of the president
o In the presidential election of 1832 South Carolina used the old system where the electors were chosen by the state legislature
o All other states had adopted a new and more democratic method of allowing the voters to choose a state’s slate of electors
• Two-party system
o The popular election system that was set up caused campaigns for president to be conducted on a national scale (large parties were thus needed)
• Rise of third parties
o Anti-Masonic party and the Workingmen’s party were newly created and reached out to groups who had previously shown little interest in politics
o The Anti-Masons attacked the secret society of Masons and accused them of belonging to a privileged, antidemocratic elite
• More elected offices
o During Jackson’s presidency many more state and local officers were elected to office (instead of being appointed)
o Gave voters more of a voice in their government
? Tended to increase interest in participating in elections
• Popular campaigning
o Candidates directed their campaigns to the interests and prejudices of the common people
o Campaigns were a form of local entertainment:
? Parades of floats and marching bands
? Large rallies in which voters were treated to food and drink
o Negative effect to this form of campaigning was candidates would often resort to personal attacks and downplay the issues
• Spoils system and rotation of officeholders
o Winning government jobs became the means of support of party organizations
o President Jackson believed in appointing people to federal jobs strictly according to if they had actively campaigned for the Democratic party
o Non-democrats were fired and replaced
o This practice of dispensing government jobs became known as the spoils system because it promoted government corruption
o Jackson believed in a system of rotation in office
o To increase the number of Democrats to hold office, Jackson limited the time in office to just one term
o Jacksonians believed that ordinary Americans were capable of holding any government office
o Spoils system and rotation of officeholders affirmed the Democratic ideal that one man was as good as another
? Helped to build a strong two-party system
• Jackson Versus Adams
o In the controversial election of 1824, Jackson won more popular and electoral votes than any other candidate, but lost the election
• The Election of 1824
o The Era of Good Feelings terminated in 1824, the year of a bitterly fought and troublesome presidential election
o The old congressional caucus system had broken down
? As a result, four candidates of the same party campaigned for presidency
• Candidates were:
o John Quincy Adams
o Henry Clay
o William Crawford
o Andrew Jackson
o Jackson won the greatest number of popular votes, but because the vote was split four ways he lacked a majority in the electoral college
o Henry Clay used his influence in the House to provide John Quincy Adams with enough votes to win the election
o After Adams and his newly appointed secretary of state, Clay, took office angry Jackson supporters accused them of making a “corrupt bargain.”
• President John Quincy Adams
o Adams further alienated followers of Jackson by asking Congress for:
? Money for internal improvements
? Aid to manufacturing
? National university and an astronomical observatory
o Jacksonians viewed these measures as a waste of money and a violation of the Constitution
o In 1828, Congress passed a new tariff law that satisfied northern manufacturers but alienated southern planters
? Southerners called it a “tariff of abominations.”
• The Revolution of 1828
o Adams sought reelection in 1828
o Jacksonians were ready, however, to use the dissatisfaction of southerners and westerners and the new campaign to get “Old Hickory” (Jackson) into office
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